More testing, More Learning Essay

All students wish to finish their college year with a good grade. There is a lot to learn in every chapter of textbooks. Even if a student spends most of his time studying, he will get very stressed when a midterm or final comes. These exams will judge how well that student is doing for the whole entire semester. Patrick O’ Malley in â€Å"More Testing, More Learning† mentions that more testing provides students better learning opportunities because more testing forces students to have good study habits. It also helps students to focus on every unit in the textbooks and encourages them to learn from their mistakes. Providing exams more often makes students have good study habits. Students need good time management in order to balance between their college lives with their study lives. According to O’Malley’s essay â€Å"Greater frequency in test taking means greater frequency in studying for tests†. Giving students more exams is a way to keep them in track and force them to focus more on class. Although students are adults and should be able to manage their own lives, they still need a teacher to coach them. If professor gives students more frequency in-class exams, it will force them to do more practice and students will learn better. Having an exam at the end of the unit helps students deeply focus on what is in the classroom. There is a lot of information in a textbook and if students have a chance to have quizzes after the major chapters, it will help them to deeply understand the materials. From Patrick O’ Malley’s proposal â€Å" This solution would have the advantage of reducing students’ anxiety about learning every fact in the textbook, and it would clarify the course goals, but it would not motivate students to study carefully each new unit, concept, or text chapter in the course†. Students who understand the concept in their textbooks will do well in class and satisfy with their college lives. Having an opportunity to review the in-class exams benefits students to focus what they have missed. From O’ Malley suggestion â€Å"It makes sense that in a challenging course containing a great deal of material, students will learn more of it and put it to better use if they have to apply or â€Å"practice† it frequently on exams†. Student should be able to see how well they are doing in class before their major exams. Practicing with more exams releases students’ anxiety. Their lives are not depending on only one or two exams. More in-class exam gives students the opportunity to study and learn from the mistakes that they did in the past tests. Being a student is not easy. A good student is the one who can maintain the student activities, work and grades. There are many ways that professors can encourage students to study. Providing students more of the exams before midterm and final is a way to help student learn. More testing helps them to focus on the contents, decrease their anxiety, keep them focused in school and also helps students learn from their own in-class exam.

Brave New World.

The Ideal Women Brave New World is a fantasy of the future that sheds a blazing critical light on the present. Huxley says â€Å"Community, Identity, Stability† is the motto of this utopian World State, the motto of this utopia is the opposite of how this world really exists. Huxley’s description of the new world is a dystopia. Lenina is a futuristic model of the modern women. She is one of the idolized women of this dystopia. The role of women in this society is promotes promiscuity and drug use.Linda on the other hand, had a very different experience then Lenina as women of this New World. Huxley embodies the trials and tribulations that these women deal with. In Brave New World, Aldous Huxley uses the characters Lenina and Linda to show the role of women in this society. From the novel Brave New World Lenina is the ideal woman in this society. She conforms to the standards that are set for the women in the new world. As Lenina talks to Bernarsd, she says, â€Å"And how can you talk like that about not wanting to be a part of the social body?After all, everyone works for everybody else† (Huxley 91). This means that Lenina accepts the idea. In addition to that, Lenina does not believe in monogamy; she is very promiscuous, as every other woman is in the society; promiscuity is an accepted belief in this society. When Fanny talks to Lenina about seeing the same man for too long, she starts to lecture her about how wrong it really is: â€Å"And you know how strongly the D. H. C objects to anything intense or long drawn.Four months of Henry Foster without having another man–why he’d be furious if he knew† (Huxley 41). Lenina accepts the idea of promiscuity, which makes her the ideal women of the society; she follows by their standards. Not only does the society use promiscuity to control the population, but also promote the use of soma. One of the states mottos is â€Å"a gramme in time saves nine†. This means that they promote the use of a dangerous drug called soma (Huxley 89).Lenina’s brain is conformed to the idea that soma is the means of living. Soma is a drug that replaces reality with happy hallucinations. Aldous Huxley shows how Lenina is a typical character, an ideal role model of the New World; she conforms to all the ideas and rules of this society. On the other hand, Linda has a different experience than Lenina. Linda was once a member of the New World, but during a visit to the reservation she hit her head and when she could not be found, she was left there.Linda’s stay on the reservation was different from the New World: â€Å"So they are having children all the time-like dogs. It’s revolting† (Huxley 122). This means that, unlike the new world, the natives believed in families and having children the traditional way, other than the new world which uses the Bokanovsky process. Natives also did not believe in promiscuity;they thought of promiscuity as revolting. As Linda states, â€Å"Well, here the other people went on, nobody’s supposed to belong to more than one person†. (Huxley 121).This is important because this statement depicts the women of the reservation are traditional, meaning sleeping around with other men is not acceptable. When Linda was caught sleeping with other men, the women were angry and cruel to Linda. Linda also was not able to take soma. Linda says, â€Å"I suppose John told you. What I had to suffer—and not a gramme of soma to be had† (Huxley 120). This means that the reservation did not use soma; it was not a desirable drug. Even though Linda was once a member of the New World, she was a savage; her experience was contrasting than Lenina’s.By using Lenina and Linda Aldous Huxley shows two different stories and experiences from two different women brought up in the same world. Lenina’s life in the new world has an altered appearance than Linda who lives in the rese rvation. Bernard describes Linda as â€Å"so fat. And all the lines in her face, the flabbiness, the wrinkles† (Huxley 119). This is important because it describes Linda’s different appearance now that she lives on the reservation, when she lived in the New World Linda had more youthful appearance, like Lenina.Linda also missed the use of Soma; hen Linda returns back to the New World, â€Å"She took as much as twenty grammes a day† Linda is again dependent on soma. Even though Linda through unfortunate events became a savage, she has the same beliefs that Lenina also has. In conclusion, Lenina and Linda are both an ideal woman of the New World, both women depict the typical woman. Even though they went through different experiences their moral, standards, and values are the same. Works Cited Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World. New York: HarperCollins , 1989. Print. Brave New World. The Ideal Women Brave New World is a fantasy of the future that sheds a blazing critical light on the present. Huxley says â€Å"Community, Identity, Stability† is the motto of this utopian World State, the motto of this utopia is the opposite of how this world really exists. Huxley’s description of the new world is a dystopia. Lenina is a futuristic model of the modern women. She is one of the idolized women of this dystopia. The role of women in this society is promotes promiscuity and drug use.Linda on the other hand, had a very different experience then Lenina as women of this New World. Huxley embodies the trials and tribulations that these women deal with. In Brave New World, Aldous Huxley uses the characters Lenina and Linda to show the role of women in this society. From the novel Brave New World Lenina is the ideal woman in this society. She conforms to the standards that are set for the women in the new world. As Lenina talks to Bernarsd, she says, â€Å"And how can you talk like that about not wanting to be a part of the social body?After all, everyone works for everybody else† (Huxley 91). This means that Lenina accepts the idea. In addition to that, Lenina does not believe in monogamy; she is very promiscuous, as every other woman is in the society; promiscuity is an accepted belief in this society. When Fanny talks to Lenina about seeing the same man for too long, she starts to lecture her about how wrong it really is: â€Å"And you know how strongly the D. H. C objects to anything intense or long drawn.Four months of Henry Foster without having another man–why he’d be furious if he knew† (Huxley 41). Lenina accepts the idea of promiscuity, which makes her the ideal women of the society; she follows by their standards. Not only does the society use promiscuity to control the population, but also promote the use of soma. One of the states mottos is â€Å"a gramme in time saves nine†. This means that they promote the use of a dangerous drug called soma (Huxley 89).Lenina’s brain is conformed to the idea that soma is the means of living. Soma is a drug that replaces reality with happy hallucinations. Aldous Huxley shows how Lenina is a typical character, an ideal role model of the New World; she conforms to all the ideas and rules of this society. On the other hand, Linda has a different experience than Lenina. Linda was once a member of the New World, but during a visit to the reservation she hit her head and when she could not be found, she was left there.Linda’s stay on the reservation was different from the New World: â€Å"So they are having children all the time-like dogs. It’s revolting† (Huxley 122). This means that, unlike the new world, the natives believed in families and having children the traditional way, other than the new world which uses the Bokanovsky process. Natives also did not believe in promiscuity;they thought of promiscuity as revolting. As Linda states, â€Å"Well, here the other people went on, nobody’s supposed to belong to more than one person†. (Huxley 121).This is important because this statement depicts the women of the reservation are traditional, meaning sleeping around with other men is not acceptable. When Linda was caught sleeping with other men, the women were angry and cruel to Linda. Linda also was not able to take soma. Linda says, â€Å"I suppose John told you. What I had to suffer—and not a gramme of soma to be had† (Huxley 120). This means that the reservation did not use soma; it was not a desirable drug. Even though Linda was once a member of the New World, she was a savage; her experience was contrasting than Lenina’s.By using Lenina and Linda Aldous Huxley shows two different stories and experiences from two different women brought up in the same world. Lenina’s life in the new world has an altered appearance than Linda who lives in the rese rvation. Bernard describes Linda as â€Å"so fat. And all the lines in her face, the flabbiness, the wrinkles† (Huxley 119). This is important because it describes Linda’s different appearance now that she lives on the reservation, when she lived in the New World Linda had more youthful appearance, like Lenina.Linda also missed the use of Soma; hen Linda returns back to the New World, â€Å"She took as much as twenty grammes a day† Linda is again dependent on soma. Even though Linda through unfortunate events became a savage, she has the same beliefs that Lenina also has. In conclusion, Lenina and Linda are both an ideal woman of the New World, both women depict the typical woman. Even though they went through different experiences their moral, standards, and values are the same. Works Cited Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World. New York: HarperCollins , 1989. Print.

Case study on Managing Resistance Essay

What lessons about power, politics and resistance, in relation to organizational change, do you draw from this study? Resistance: Resistance to change is the act of opposing or struggling with modifications or transformations that alter the status quo in the workplace. Politics in resistance to change management – As based on the case study, it shows the confliction of interests and politics were the main reason deterring the necessary changes that should be implemented when the problem was identify. As the reward power of leaders will find all ways of means to suppress any emergent resistance which therefore forming an obstacle towards the possible change of the culture or risk management practices. -Despite the consequence, Paul Moore voiced out the problem ignoring the resistance from the upper management (Senior Executives) and managed to identify the issues that was happening 1) The company secretary failed to minute crucial comments he made at a formal board meeting reporting his investigation that the sales culture at HBOS had got out of control. 2) During the report for the group auditing meeting, problems such as systems and controls, risk management and the sales culture that he identify was intentionally being left out of the reports that should be represented to the auditing committee. 3) An ex-sales manager who had no experience of risk management was appointed as the group risk director after Moore was dismissed. 4) A close friend of the HBOS chairman was appointed as the chairman of the risk control committee who had no knowledge in banking or credit risk management to oversea such a vital position which were meant to challenge the chairman if problems arise. Five tips for: Managing resistance 1. Do change management right the first time 2. Expect it 3. Address it formally 4. Identify the root causes 5. Engage the â€Å"right† resistance managers

Childhood obesity assoicated with soical disadvantage of school age Research Paper

Childhood obesity assoicated with soical disadvantage of school age children - Research Paper Example Generally speaking, an obese person is considered to be any individual who carries more body fat than is considered healthy for their specific gender, height, age and gender. Although obesity is typically only thought of as an adult problem, children are even more at risk. While other conditions may be easier to hide under clothing or to mask in other ways, obesity cannot be hidden under clothing and often leads to children being teased or becoming the recipient of cruel jokes perpetrated on them by their misunderstanding classmates. The negative looks and disapproving stares from other children and adults greet them each time they meet the next set of eyes. This often unconscious reaction on the part of others can contribute to severe psychological damage that lasts a lifetime. Even when the weight is defeated, these emotional scars can significantly impact the individual’s ability to achieve the kind of happiness and fulfillment that should be everyone’s right. The ph ysical ramifications of obesity are also unacceptably great. It is a well-known fact that obesity can dramatically lower life expectancy regardless of age. With obesity now recognized as being at epidemic proportions, it is of utmost importance to identify the most prevalent causes of obesity and the most effective means of treating it to help school-age children overcome some of the social disadvantages of being overweight. One of the most troubling aspects of obesity is its close connection with at least 30 adverse health conditions and innumerable psychological ramifications. Increasingly younger people are beginning to experience arthritis of the knees, back, hips and hands as a result of the long-term abuse their systems must endure. The risk of breast cancer is doubled for obese people as compared to those who maintain a relatively stable

Management environment of Kuwait Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Management environment of Kuwait - Assignment Example This paper illustrates that management environment is how the management programs of an organization are organized in a systematic and comprehensive manner. It includes the structure of the organization, the resources, and the planning for developing, implementation and maintenance of a better maintenance policy for the well-being of the organization in question. The management environment is aimed at ensuring a smooth running of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling in the organization. It is upon the management to see to it that the organization reaches its goals and objectives, to ensure that it maintains a competitive advantage. It is important for organizations to join collaborations and keep good relationships with other countries. Most of the organizations in Kuwait are complex and it is for the managers to manage and reduce complexity to structure organizations. It is an acronym for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The strengths and weaknesses are i nternal factors while opportunities and threats are external factors. It is an important tool to audit and analyze the strategic position of the business and its overall environment. It is aimed at identifying the best strategies capable of aligning the organizational resources and capabilities to the environmental requirements of the firm’s operation. It is aimed at evaluating the internal potential and limitations and the probable opportunities and threats that originate from the external environment. It is able to view all the positive and the negative factors both inside and outside the firm that affects the success of the organization. Studying the environment is capable of forecasting the changing trends and helps in the decision making of the organization. It is a concept that is evident in the marketing principles. It enables companies to enable the tracking of the environment in which they are operating in or are planning to venture in. It is an acronym for political , economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors often use it. It ensures that the business environment is viewed from various angles that one needs to keep track while contemplating on the idea or plan in question. It is crucial for an industry since it defines what the company should do and accounts for the goals and strategies of the organization.

Research Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Research Proposal - Essay Example Although judging people from the face value may reveal certain issues about them, it is not a representative way of understanding an individual. The story introduces to the readers a number of characters that are only defined by the things they carry. However, such tendencies may not provide the exact representation of the individuals presented in this context. Jimmy Cross is thought to be in love with a former girlfriend who he dated before joining the service (O’Brien 3). The assumption presented in the story that Cross intimates is that he hopes the girl is still in love with him. However, the letters from the woman suggest a contrary opinion. Ideally, what is thought to be a love issue is blown out of proportion only for the mere details in the letter. Though the letters reveal an element of love as exhibited by Cross, the woman feels the opposite way effectively making the letters a mere symbol of love and not the actual feelings (O’Brien 3). O’Brien introduces the characters by describing the different things carried by the soldiers. Ordinarily, one would easily define the individuals based on the various things they have in their possession. For instance, Henry Dobbins is introduced as a person who carries extra foodstuffs (O’Brien 5). From the face value, it would mean that Dobbins likes eating or never gets satisfied. However, such a perception may not have any basis because being a soldier would mean that Dobbins is only taking precautionary measures so that he is not disenfranchised while in the battlefield. O’Brien introduces Ted Lavender as an individual who carries the tranquilizer pills. Defining the personality or the character of Lavender by the pills he carries does not provide facts concerning her. Kiowa walks with the hunting hatchet throughout the journey, and this would perhaps give the impression that he is a hunter (O’Brien 6). It is important to note that such an individual may carry the hatchet only for fun and not for

Strategic Change Heriot-Watt University Analysis Essay

Strategic Change Heriot-Watt University Analysis - Essay Example This model encompasses seven different factors that include â€Å"shared values, strategy, structure, systems, style, staff, and skills† which all are necessary to be included to ensure that a model of positive change occurs. It is defined as a holistic model of change that is collectivist in its many segments, thus requiring the university staff and its external partners to work together to ensure that the change efforts occur smoothly and all vision and mission goals are met successfully. The first part of the model looks toward establishing a vision so that shared values can be expressed and developed within the organizational staff and the students. The vision for the change is â€Å"to become a world-leading university that will produce the next generation of global leaders in business and technology – committed to growth and investment in staff and infrastructure†. The tool is to develop a new urgency in high-quality education and learning materials, by pro viding supporting technological know-how and the tools needed to make sure that the technologies needed are used appropriately and meet goals. Centralized services are also being strengthened so that courses offered to students are consistent toward the world-class business and technology goals in areas of environment, climate, business, and technology.It is ongoing professional development for educators to ensure they have the skills and knowledge available to provide excellence in training and education provision for academic students.... Essentially, it is ongoing professional development for educators to ensure they have the skills and knowledge available to provide excellence in training and education provision for academic students. These efforts also take into consideration and provide a foundational structure for systems, skills and staff development that are part of the McKinsey 7-S model of change. Externally, the university students and the educators will be consulting with knowledge leaders in all key areas of the Focus on the Future campaign in order to assist in developing a world-class curriculum for tomorrow’s business and technology leaders. One example is a partnership with business leaders at the Institute of Petroleum Engineering to assist in areas of clean energy provision so that students have real-world knowledge about processes and future strategies related to energy. 3. Driving and restraining forces â€Å"For change to be possible, driving forces must (ultimately) overcome the restraini ng forces that have been identified† (SkyMark, 2011, p.2). The university must brainstorm ideas and concepts that will be directly related to whether or not it can meet its long-term strategic goals of ensuring better education and better educator knowledge about real-time events in the business world as it relates to tomorrow’s industries. The following is a force field analysis showing the likely driving and restraining forces associated with the Focus on the Future campaign: Driving forces are those forces that make up the foundation of the entire change effort, such as external business needs related to more qualified and knowledgeable students. This

Inequality, Corruption and Distribution of Income in Indonesia (Post Term Paper

Inequality, Corruption and Distribution of Income in Indonesia (Post Independence) - Term Paper Example Islam has also played a significant role in the Indonesia’s identity and economic issues. The name of Islam has too often been used to promote an agenda as in the case of Indonesian politics bringing with it death, destruction and deception in order to establish an Islamic state with Sharia as the state law. It is uncertain if these agendas were sincerely to establish an Islamic state, or it is a propaganda tool used by governments to influence its people to respond in a certain way, or it is a bit of both. The Bali and Jakarta bombings are examples of death, destruction and deception where only time will reveal the truth. When the Japanese surrendered in 1945, young radical Muslims pressured Sukarno to declare Indonesia’s Independence, uniting Indonesian against the Dutch attempts of re-establishing a colony in Indonesia. The Ulama declared Jihad against the Dutch. Muslim militias under the command of the Ulama with the Dutch-Japanese trained Indonesian armed forces drove out the Dutch. However, this unity of people did not last long. (Scott, 2008) Muslim militias in the West of Java broke ranks with the government after the government accepted a ceasefire agreement with the Dutch to withdraw its forces to central Java. Kartosuwiryo, a Muslim Politian, continued to lead the breakaway group against the Dutch and eventually establishing their own government and state with the sharia as law. This group was later known as Darul Islam or the Islamic state of Indonesia. Darul Islam remained a thorn for the Indonesian government with many other rebel movements from other provinces like Aceh and South Sulawesi joining Darul Islam. There were many other Muslim leaders who although supported an Islamic state, were in favor of the Indonesian Republic and condemned the violence of Darul Islam (Bruinessen 2002). Darul Islam was finally crushed and went underground in 1962 after the capture of its leaders (Bruinessen 2002). It was later to surface

Immigration in Mexico Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Immigration in Mexico - Essay Example The paper will analyze the effect of such migration on the Mexican economy along with its ramifications for the U.S. economy. Before we delve into this issue any further it is perhaps best to do a quick study of the country. Mexico is the third largest nation in North America and among the fifteen largest in the world. It is bordered by the U.S. in the north and by Guatemala and Belize in the south. Mexico is poor in natural resources except oil. However it is rich in mineral sources like gold and silver. These two countries, Mexico and the U.S., have a long and shared history. One of the momentous events in this shared history has been the annexation of large parts of Mexico by the U.S. in 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. This treaty effectively ended Mexican claims to the state of Texas while at the same time Mexico also incurred the loss of the state of California and much of modern day Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada, New Mexico and Arizona. This annexation had been engineered by James Polk, the eleventh President of the U.S. The annexation had been largely supported by the American people though Polk's means and methods to achieve it were even at that time highly suspect. Mexico had losMexico had lost much of its agricultural land in this transaction which compensation by the U.S could not rectify. Daniel Levy and Gabriel Szekely in their book Mexico - Paradoxes of Stability and Change believe that Mexico's political stability is inadvertently tied with its economic growth. This is supported by Daniel James in Mexico And The Americans where he remarks that single party rule in Mexico, though not an encouraging aspect about Mexico may have helped her progress in the long run. Similarly Haber and Razo reject the claims of other historians that the Mexican Revolution (1910 - 1919) had a negative impact on the industrial growth of Mexico. In fact they say that there was an overall growth in sectors like cotton textiles, steel and cement industries. The 1920's saw a massive increase of import of U.S. made heavy machinery by Mexico for use in its industries. Mexico had an economic boom in the Post - War years but some fifty years later it also suffered a c ollapse of its economy when the peso became almost worthless. It is hardly surprising that many Mexicans try to seek employment in the U.S. A majority among these enter the U.S. illegally to work primarily in agriculture and factories.Mexico, on the other hand, also absorbs a large number of immigrants from the Central American countries who emigrate to work in Mexico or use it as a gateway to enter the U.S. Over the years relations between the two countries have had their fair share of successes and reversals. Mexico's problems stem in part from being the neighbor of the most powerful country in the world. Mexico is among the ten most populous countries in the world. It also has an immense disparity between its rich and its poor. Illegal immigration is one of the thorniest issues that beleaguer U.S. - Mexico relations. Typically Americans feel swamped by their neighbors and hostility ensues. The U.S Census Office estimated that in the years 1999 - 2000 the foreign - born population had increased by 50 pc when in

Cashflow Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cashflow - Essay Example ons or contributing - in spite of the fact that this likewise happens as a consequence of gifts or blessings on account of individual fund (Deveau, 2015). Money outpourings result from costs or ventures. This remains constant for both business and individual money. The primary essential stride in keeping up a positive cash flow is putting a financial plan set up. One of the ways of controlling income is by getting ready and keeping up a capital forecast (Niven, 2013). Significantly, forecasting has key impact in deciding long haul financing needs. Credit control and obligation recuperation are imperative figures in great income administration. Attempts to pay in time mean suppliers will be more prone to arrange deals with solid clients (Deveau, 2015). Issue updates when an installment is late and after that pursuit up also create positive possibilities. There is a need for considering charging punishment enthusiasm for late plan how to manage non-payment (Niven, 2013). Entrepreneurs additionally need to give careful consideration to their receivable and payable cycles. Finally, pricing needs to bode well. Deveau, D. (2015). Planning ahead makes for stronger cash flow. Financialpost.com. Retrieved 12 June 2015, from

Sexual Child Abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sexual Child Abuse - Essay Example Recent researches have shown that many times the abuser himself had been a subject to child abuse in his or her past or has been a subject to physical violence. Abusers are usually self-centered lack ability to coping skills and have no understanding of child behavior pattern and treat them devastatingly without feeling for them.Another cause contributing to sexual child abuse is the mental state of abuser. History of abuser often reveals coping up with financial stress and depression in past, psychological illness. Abuser often belongs to a broken family or he has been neglected during his growth period which had affected his behavior and thinking adversely.Pedophilia is a psychiatric disorder often co related with neurological disorder in which abuser develops sexual interest for prepubescent child so it is also one of the causes of child sexual abuse. Pedophilia if not treated or repressed leads to severe consequences.it does not have any cure but it do have therapies that help th e abuser to cope up with his state. Pedophilic patients often stop sexual abuse when a child starts to develop secondary characteristics of adulthood. Sexual child abuse might be a single event or it may continue for several years.History of abusers have reveled consumption of excessive alcohol and drug intake, family troubles and poverty which is one of the main causes contributing to prevalence of sexual child abuse. Abuser might continue his harassment for over years which devastatingly damage. the personality and behavior of child. Children born to heavy alcoholic parents are at a greater risk of to suffer from sexual abuse in near future due to lack of interest of parents in the house which provides an opportunity to abuser to take advantage of the situation as such parents cannot provide much protection to their children due to their habit of alcohol. (Hornor, G., 2010) Sometimes abuser involves in sexual harassment of child just for the sake of fun and pleasure without caring for the child. These are some of the factors and causes that lead to sexual child abuse and harassment. Many researches indicated that abusers were a subject to amnesia. Another reason for sexual child abuse is that sometimes abuser does not feel sexual feelings for people belonging to their own age

Towards Equality Of Women Essay Example for Free

Towards Equality Of Women Essay Nowadays, gender became a very sensitive issue. The word gender is not only limited to feminist and masculinity. Other than that, feminist movements are very active. They claim that man and women should be equally treated. Certain jobs and career should not be limited to a specific gender. There is also a kind of feminist movement that claims that women can do masculine work and engage in masculine sports. Examples are women who are working as cab drivers, police, and soldiers and joining sports such as weight lifting, wrestling, and boxing. Sapphireblue.com defines amazon feminism as follows: â€Å"Amazon feminism is dedicated to the image of the female hero in fiction and in fact, as it is expressed in art and literature, in the physiques and feats of female athletes, and in sexual values and practices. Amazon feminism is concerned about physical equality and is opposed to gender role stereotypes and discrimination against women based on assumptions that women are supposed to be, look or behave as if they are passive, weak and physically helpless. Amazon feminism rejects the idea that certain characteristics or interests are inherently masculine (or feminine), and upholds and explores a vision of heroic womanhood. Thus Amazon feminism advocates e.g., female strength athletes, martial artists, soldiers, etc. [TG]†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In my own opinion, feminism and masculinity are only defined by the society. Masculinity just varies and it depends on how it is viewed in a culture. For example, there was a time in Japan when crying and being soft was their idea of masculinity. This view of masculinity might shock us because of our modern view but there was a time when it really existed in Japan. It is very interesting to know that there was also a time in Japan when masculinity means being a warrior or a samurai. It only means that an era or culture sets the standard of masculinity and there is no such thing as absolute masculinity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, there are people who think that there is such word as â€Å"too masculine†. It only means that an image or nature of work display too much quality that only man can satisfy. This word disqualifies any woman from doing or fulfilling that â€Å"too masculine responsibility. Now that we are living in a modern society, I think that the word â€Å"too masculine† is no longer applicable. Thanks to some feminist movements, career or any other responsibility are no longer limited to a specific gender. Any person, man or woman, is entitled to a career or responsibility as long as he or she is qualified. Actually, there are a lot of woman who are excelling in those fields which are traditionally for men. Examples are successful political leaders such as Gloria Macapagal Arroyo of the Philippines, Benazir Bhuto of Pakistan, and Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain. They have proven that women can lead a nation as long as effective as men. Here, we can see that leadership position in the field of politics is no longer too masculine for a woman. Personally, I don’t believe in the word â€Å"too masculine† anymore. When I was a young student, I used to believe that each gender has a specific responsibility assignment. For example, taking care of children is for women only because of their gentle nature. But now, my mind was opened by feminist movements. Women can do tough work because they can also display strong character. On the other hand, men can also take the responsibility of women because they also have a gentle side.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although feminist movements promote gender equality, it also has a negative impact in our society. Based on what I observe in our society, manhood is no longer respectable. Sometimes, I feel that women are abusing gender equality. As a matter of fact, there is a kind of feminist movement which claims that men are no longer needed in the society. It is called radical feminism. About.com defines radical feminism as follows: â€Å"Radical feminism is a philosophy emphasizing the patriarchal roots of inequality between men and women, or, more specifically, social dominance of women by men. Radical feminism views patriarchy as dividing rights, privileges and power primarily by gender, and as a result oppressing women and privileging men. Radical feminists tend to be more militant in their approach (radical as getting to the root). Radical feminism opposes existing political and social organization in general because it is inherently tied to patriarchy. Thus, radical feminists tend to be skeptical of political action within the current system, and instead support cultural change that undermines patriarchy and associated hierarchical structures. â€Å"   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even media promotes an image of a man that is submissive to women. Example is the Ax deo spray commercial where men act like sex slaves of women. Also, media nowadays suggest that women can use sex and their physical beauty to manipulate men.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During our pre-agricultural past, when men and women are still hunters and gatherers, gender equality already exists. We can say that gender equality already exists because men and women are living in a egalitarian society. They had what we call values of belonging which is characterized by self restraint, generosity and mutuality. As explained by Carol Finders in tworock.com: â€Å"Throughout the eons that preceded the agricultural revolution, Flinders notes, our ancestors were hunter-gatherers. Certain values are intrinsic to that way of life wherever it is lived.   Self-restraint, generosity, mutuality, balance, and a warmly reverent connection to the earth and other creatures are all adaptive to a nomadic, foraging existence.   They are the values of Belonging, and they defined the human condition for so long they exist still – in longing, in faint memory as an indestructible stratum in consciousness itself.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, the culture of enterprise started to emerge during agricultural development. Men and women started to acquire their own property. In the culture of enterprise, aggression and competition are prevalent. As stated by Finders: â€Å"With the rise of agriculture and city-states, beginning just ten thousand years ago, a new set of values became adaptive: irreverence, willingness to exploit the natural world for profit; acquisitiveness, aggression, and competitiveness. The values of Enterprise.† I think that it is not necessary to take more of values of belonging because it is no longer applicable to our society. Culture of enterprise is well stabilized in our society and changing it may cause instability. Although aggression and inequality is inevitable in the culture of enterprise, I believe that we can regulate it by promoting positive values such as justice and respect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I chose education as a subject area to discuss the contrast between values of belonging and culture of enterprise. It is obvious that the culture of enterprise is very dominant in field of education. Nowadays, education is used to promote a person from his or her current social status. We can notice that mostly, education is only exclusives to the rich and middle class people. It is because educating the poor will surely uplift the status of poor people. If everyone can have an equal opportunity for education, poverty will be lessen. Here, the characteristic of the culture of enterprise is very evident and these are competition and acquisitiveness. We can’t deny the fact that educated people acquire the most number of properties and wealth. Meanwhile, if our society is still living in the values of belonging, definitely education will be free for all. Because in the values of belonging, everyone is equal and there is no competition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   We can apply the culture of enterprise to those societies where there is gender inequality. In those cultures where women are treated as second class citizen, women are deprived of the rights to education. It is because education can uplift the status of women in the society. Educated women will threaten the status of men in the society. Educated women can acquire more property than educated women. Here we can see that there is aggression and competition which are qualities of culture of enterprise. I believe that moving the values of belonging can be a solution to this gender inequality in education because the said values promote equality. When we move to the values of belonging, there will be an absence of competition between men and women in the society. Men will not be threatened by educated women. Equal opportunity for education will be easy to achieve. http://www.tworock.org/Values%20of%20Belonging.htm http://www.sapphireblue.com/dissident_feminist/factions.shtml#amazon

The effect of background noise on free recall

The effect of background noise on free recall The effect of background noise upon free recall of visually presented words was investigated. A total of 60 participants were recruited for this psychological study. The experimental groups were the speech condition (N=20) and the whale sound condition (N=20) whereas the silent condition (N=20) accounted for the control condition. Participants were randomly assigned to each group. The speech, whale sound and silence accounted for the three levels of independent variable whereas the subjective free recall accounted for the dependent variable. This study formed two hypotheses. Hypothesis one proposed that more words will be recalled in the control condition than in the experimental conditions and hypothesis 2 proposed that fewer words will be recalled in the speech condition than both the whale sound and silent condition. The present investigation employed a between groups design. One way ANOVA showed that participants in the control condition (M = 12.85 SD = 2.97) significantly recall ed more words than the whale sound experimental (M= 9.05 SD =2.13) and the speech conditions (M= 9.65 SD= 3.49) (p= Key words: working memory, free recall, silence, whale sound, speech Investigation into background noise and participants free recall performance Background noise has been established to be among the most notable forms of interference in the in offices and educational settings causing stress and discomfort for workers and learners and affecting performance (Hugh Jones 2001). Background noise from aircraft, road traffic, and trains have all been shown to impair learning (Enmarker, Boman, Hygge 2006; Hygge, 2003; Wible, Nicol, Kraus, 2004 in McNeil). The working memory model proposed by Salame and Baddeley (1990) constitutes of the visuo-spatial system and phonological system, however, the memory system that is concerned with verbal visual and auditory presentation is the phonological store. The phonological store, together with the process of articulatory rehearsal constitutes what is unknown as the phonological loop (Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar, 2003). Prominent psychologists have investigated the phenomenon of background noise and its interference with the working memory processes and recall impairment. For example, Salame Baddeley (1982 in Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar, 2003) argued of the irrelevant speech effect which refers to a reduction in the immediate recall of lists of presented items when irrelevant auditory material is presented together with the items to be memorized (Gisselgard et al, 2003). Salame and Baddeley argued that irrelevant sound effect interferes with the temporary storage of verbal material within a phonological input store of limited capacity (Gisselgard, 2003). Jones (2004) also argues that auditory verbal stimuli have direct access to phonological system whereas visual verbal has indirect access whereas the visual verbal stimuli endeavour a process of sub vocalization before passing through the articulatory suppression system. (Jones, Macken Nicholls (2004: the phonological store of working memory). Other psychologists argue that the irrelevant speech will interfere with the representations of list items if and only they are being held within the phonological store. However, during the rehearsal process (articulatory suppression), the irrelevant sound effect may be abolished (Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar, 2003), therefore not impairing word recall. Beaman Jones (1998) acknowledge that one of the earliest explanations produced for the irrelevant sound effect was the acoustic primary memory masking hypothesis (Colle Welsh, 1976) which postulates that irrelevant auditory stimuli have the action of masking phonologically recoded visual stimuli in an acoustic primary memory store. According to this approach, the items lose their distinctiveness by being masked, making their retrieval difficult (Beaman Jones, 1998). Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones (2001), on the contrary, argue that as the memory task and irrelevant speech are presented in different sensory modalities, the effect cannot be attributed to some kind of interference (or masking) at sensory level as suggested by Colle and Welsh( 1976). Instead they argue that this disruption must be attributable to: A confluence of processing from the ear and the eye at some level beyond the sensory organs; this can be explained as a breakdown in attentional selectivity. Despite the intent of the person to concentrate on the memory task, the irrelevant sound intrudes therefore impairing recall. (Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones, 2001) Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones (2001) suggest that interference results from the similarity of events represented in memory, a phenomenon known as phonological similarity. One subtype proposes that the disruption is based on a conflict of content between what is seen and what is heard. This may be through similarity (phonological similarity) in the identity of the irrelevant sound to the items being rehearsed (Salame Baddely 1982 in Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones 2001) through shared temporal cues or through degree of overlap of modality-independent features in the irrelevant speech with the items in the visually presented to-be-recalled list (Neath, 2000 in Banbury, Macken, Trenblay Jones 2001). The phonological similarity is particularly relevant in this study as a back ground speech by Martin Luther King, in English will be employed and administered in the background. It is worthy of acknowledgement that irrelevant sound hypothesis has been predominately investigated for serial recall (Lecompte, 1994 Beaman Jones, 1998). The irrelevant speech effect has been found to effect and disrupt the learning of list of words in a sequential order and Salame and Baddeley (1990) did establish that background noise was disruptive. However, free recall has also found to be affected by the irrelevant sound (Beaman Jones 1998). In light of this, the present study will investigate the irrelevant sound hypothesis through assessing free recall of subjects. Moreover, Studies (Beaman Jones, 1998 have shown that the irrelevant sound effect does equally effect serial or free recall, without distinction. For example, in testing the free recall and the irrelevant speech effect, Lecompte (1994) study found that a) irrelevant speech inhibited free recall more than white noise. In addition Lecompte (1994) had found an effect on irrelevant sound on free recall in four cond itions (Lecompte, 1994). This is also supported and acknowledged by Beaman Jones (1998). The present study will be employing whale sound as one of the independent variables although animal sound with relation to memory recall impairment have been investigated by Neath Surprenant (2000) (the nature of remembering) In other studies, the irrelevant speech effect was not found in free recall (Salame Baddeley, 1990 in Lecompte, 1994). Although there is substantial research which has found that noise disrupts learning, there is however some other investigations which established that background noise had a facilitative effect on learning as oppose to a detrimental effect dependent upon the level and frequency of the noise and subjective ratings of levels for interference (Hughes Jones, 2001). It is noteworthy that although Salame and Baddeley (1989) used Japanese speech in the background which accounted for the irrelevant speech the present study will use English Martin Luther King speech. Use of English narrative as an independent variable has also been investigated. For example, Jones, Miles and Page (1990 in Jones, Madden Miles, 1992) performed an investigation in which forward, reversed (English narrative) and Welsh (narrative) irrelevant speech were contrasted. Each produced a large and almost identical effect on the recall of consonant strings. In another study (in Jones, Madden Miles, 1992) irrelevant Italian and English produced a similar degree of impairment (Morris, Jones Quayle., 1989 in ibid) the psychologists argue that the phonological similarity effect isnt the cause of poorer recall as Salame and Baddeley (1989 in Jones, Madden Miles, 1992) have argued. The aforementioned mentioned study by Jones et al (1990) demonstrates that background speech which is similar to the language of the listener will be equally disruptive when compared to other languages such as Welsh. Oswald et al (2000 in Hughes Jones, 2001: the intrusiveness of sound) tested participants comprehension of sentences of meaningful speech, meaningless speech and in quiet. They found that performance was worse in both speech conditions relative to quiet, but most noticeably, meaningful speech was more disruptive than meaningless speech. This study therefore supports Salame and Baddeley (1990) similar phonological effect hypothesis with relation to interference and disruption, which will also form one of the hypothesis for the present study. Amidst the scope of studies already performed in the domains of irrelevant sound effect and its effect upon the phonological working memory, this present study too, aims to investigate whether or not the background speech and whale sound will impair recall for words presented visually. Method Participants A total of 60 participants were recruited for this psychological research. Each of the eight investigators for this study recruited eight participants. The control or silent condition comprised of 20 participants, the whale sound condition comprised on 20 participants and the Martin Luther King speech condition comprised of 20 participants. All these participants were randomly assigned to each of the eight investigators. All of the participants were over 18 and no other demographic variable such as specific age group or gender was considered in this present study. The participants were either related or associated with the investigators. Design variables A between subjects experiment design was employed. Participants were randomly allocated to each group. This study used one independent variable with three levels of background noise which were silent, speech, and whale sound. The silent condition was the control condition whereas the speech and whale sound were the experimental conditions. The dependent variable is the number of words correctly recalled by the groups. The noise level of the speech and whale sound was 66 -70 decibels. The present study employed the free recall methodology. Hypotheses Recall of words will be higher for the silent (control) condition than the whale sound and speech sound (experimental) conditions. This accounts for hypothesis 1. The recall of words will be lower in the speech sound condition compared to both the whale and silent conditions to investigate the phonological similarity effect and its effect of interference with information processing and recall. This therefore accounts for hypothesis 2. Stimuli and materials Martin Luther King speech (experimental condition 1); Whale sound (experimental condition2); Silence (Control condition); 20 words were selected from the Toronto Word Pool with neutral but similar levels of concreteness and imaginability. The lower level of imaginability and concreteness ranged from 1 to 3 and high ranged from 5 to 9 but the words selected were at level 4.font was Ariel size 12. The format of the words was a visual presentation of in a list form. Procedure Participants were briefed and informed consent was obtained prior to commencement of experimentation. In the silent (control) condition the participants were presented with the words. Participants learned the words for 3 minutes. Participants were then given a further 3 minutes to recall the words followed by debrief. In experimental (1) whale sound and experimental (2) speech conditions participants were presented with words and were allowed 3 minutes to learn the words accompanied with either background whale sound or speech. A further 3 minutes were given for the written free recall of words followed by debrief. In the brief the participants were informed of the whale and speech background noise, neither any approach to learn the words was mentioned. Other background interferences and auditory disruptions, other than the intended noise were kept to a minimum. Results The effect of background sound (silent, speech, whale sound) on recall of words was examined using one-way subjects ANOVA. It was expected that participants in the silent condition would recall more words than the participants in the speech and whale sound condition. The mean scores revealed that more words were recalled in the silent condition (12.85 SD = 2.97). There was almost equal number of words recalled in the whale sound (M= 9.05 SD=2.13) and the speech condition (M=9.65 SD=3.49). There was significant difference between the recall scores of the control and experimental conditions F (2, 57) = 9.748, p0.05). Participants in the speech condition recalled significantly less than the silent condition (Mean difference = -3.2 p=0.05). Therefore this experiment supports the hypothes1 and therefore the null hypothesis will be rejected. Lower recall in the speech condition compared to the silent but similar levels of recall compared to the whale sound condition partially supports hypo thesis 2. Condition Recall N Mean Standard Deviation Silent 20 12.85 2.97 Whale 20 9.05 2.13 Speech 20 9.65 3.49 Total 60 10.51 3.33 Table 1 shows the mean score for each group together with their standard deviations. The silent condition recalled the most number of words and the whale and speech conditions scoring the similar number of words. Sound Sound Mean Difference Sig. Alpha 0.05 Silent Whale 3.80 0.00 speech 3.20 0.00 whale Silent -3.8 0.00 Speech -.60 0.79 speech Silent -.32 0.03 whale .6 0.79 Table 2 Multiple comparisons showing the scores of each group, inclusive of mean difference and their significance. There is a significantly larger difference between Silent compared to whale and speech conditions. There is a significant difference between whale and silent condition but not with speech condition. There is a significant difference between speech and silent but not with the whale condition. This test supports hypothesis 1 expected the recall for words in the control condition to be higher than the experimental thus supporting the experimental hypothesis and rejecting the null hypothesis. However, there is not a significant difference between the speech and whale noise condition therefore as fewer words were recalled in the speech condition compared to the silent condition and assessing that there is not a significance recall difference when compared to the whale noise condition only partially supports hypothesis 2. Recall Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. ÃŽÂ ·p2 Between Groups 166.933 2 83.46 9.74 0.000 0.25 Within Groups 488.050 57 8.56 Total 654.983 59 Table 3 is showing the between and within groups mean scores and shows that the differences between the groups is significant (p= Discussion This present study attempted to investigate the effect of background sound on recall for words. The investigation manifested that overall the recall for the control (silent) condition was higher than the experimental (whale sound and speech) conditions. Therefore is supportive of the hypothesis 1 of this study and of the irrelevant sound hypothesis, and therefore rejecting the null hypothesis. The minor partial eta square effect is also noteworthy showing that the independent variables did not greatly affect the participants recall of words. In relation to the phonological similarity effect due to the administration of English words and English speech, it was found that articulatory suppression in the speech condition did not abolish the phonological similarity effect as well as the irrelevant speech effect which are known to impair the processing and retrieval of visually presented words. This is evident through lower production of words in the Speech condition. Therefore this study has supported the phonological similarity effect and its impairing effects upon processing visually similar verbal information. This investigation has shown that the practice of rehearsal or articulatory suppression did not abolish the both the phonological similarity effect and the irrelevant sound effect. The abolishment the phonological similarity hypothesis through articulatory suppression is well documented by Gisselgard, Petersson, Baddeley Ingvar (2003). The findings of these results can therefore be extended to the wider world where people are reading verbal information and listening to verbal auditory concurrently, albeit individual differences can also be taken into consideration. It was acknowledged that hypothesis 2 was partially supported because even though significantly fewer words were recalled in the speech condition than the silent condition but the difference is not statistically significant when compared to the whale sound condition. This finding is therefore also interesting as animal whale noise had equal level of disruption than human verbal speech. Despite the interesting findings, this study however, does have some limitations. This present study didnt take into consideration other individual variables such as age, gender. Considering these variables could yield further complimentary or contradictory results which could be subjected to empirical analysis. In a study performed by Ellermeier Zimmer (1997) individual difference was found with relation to susceptibility to the irrelevant speech effect. One study demonstrated that males and females perform differently in the presence of music when undertaking different tasks and exercises (Miller Schyb, 1989). In future studies, demographic variables and specific sample can be considered to ensure more reliable and valid results. Moreover, this present study did not take vocal or instrumental music as an independent measure and variable, although these variables may also be critical. Therefore, in future studies the inclusion of music condition and how background music facilitate s and impairs learning can also be considered. Hillard and Tolin (1975), for example, showed that if the background music was well-known to the subject, they performed better on the given task than when unknown music was present. The domains of familiarity and unfamiliarity of music can therefore, also be explored. Moreover, in another study, the psychoacoustics found that music that contained speech had significant detrimental effects on the participants ability to perform tasks (Martin, Wogalter Forlano, 1988). Extensive studies can be performed in light of all of the aforementioned variables.

Approaches Towards Dementia Care

Approaches Towards Dementia Care Peter John Ignacio Jael Wafula Support Planning for Geriatric Health Conditions Introduction Today, our society consists of increasing number of people aged sixty five and over. This is the result of the baby boomer effect in which post world war two children are now in the latter stages of their lives. It is believed that institutions which are inclined in supporting the elderly have to be experts in the health concerns that goes along with ageing. There can be a variety of health conditions an old person can have, these include, but not limited to, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, osteoporosis, vision and hearing loss, skin changes, and mental, emotional and psychological changes. The latter, being the focus of this paper, is mostly referred to as the main concern of the elderly not only here in New Zealand but most of the elderly all over the world. Topics involving this will be examined in this paper, such as, the differentiation of person centred approach and non-person centred approach in care of the elderly, techniques in meeting the fluctuating abilities and needs of elder people with conditions in mentation, impacts of cultural diversity and impacts of health sector standards on the person-centred model of managing individuals with cognitive difficulties, like dementia of senior members of the community and other geriatric related health conditions. Person-centred approach First to be examined is the person centred approach which is focused on the elderly person, individual resident, if in a rest home setting; a particular patient, if in a hospital setting; or the senior citizens, in society as a whole. It is the principle of knowing the person being cared for, comprehensively, not only the health concern or the disease that they have. People even in the advance stages of their lives have the right to be treated with respect and dignity. To do this, it is paramount to know the person as who he or she is and how he or she would like to be treated. First and foremost is knowing the name of the patient, resident or any individual being cared for. This is the basic thing to know by heart and not to be undermined. It is easy to forget names at times but it is important to make sure to know and remember names of persons being cared for especially the elderly. This can be done by regularly checking the charts or records of clients and using their names when c ommunicating with them on a daily basis. In turn, this can help in remembering and fully knowing the clients’ names and even furthering the caring relationship between the carers and the people being cared for. In addition to that, knowing clients’ personality and the activities they usually do would definitely help in establishing an outstanding relationship. Things like, hobbies, routines and favourites of the elderly are always good to know especially if they are residing in a facility that would benefit from these personal information for the continuity of care and to have harmonious client carer relationship altogether. In this way, satisfaction of elderly clients would be maintained and honoured. For elderly clients with dementia or similar health conditions, it is also indispensable to protect their rights. Western countries, New Zealand included, and other developed nations are very strict with regards to this. Clients, whatever their age is, should be treated and cared for in accordance to the bill of rights that everyone should respect and pay attention to, especially when caring for elderly clients. Included in this bill is the right of privacy. Privacy is still very important when caring for elderly clients. They are still fully aware of their surroundings and the things that make them uncomfortable should be avoided. The right of choice is also another factor that should be maintained in the life of the elderly. This means that clients have the right to choose of any aspect of their care. They are free to prefer being independent and to preserve their autonomy in everyday decision making, and of course the freedom from coercion or unconsented experiment or study that may be performed for the advancement of the geriatric medical field. Non-person-centred approach On the other hand, the non-person-centred approach to dementia and other advanced age related health concerns have a different precepts or premise. There are two common theme considered in the said approach. These are institution perspective and bio-medical perspective. The first one being focused in the welfare of the facility as the name implies. The reputation and the credibility of the institution is utmost important and to maintain a good image to the public, and perhaps to retain the funding provided by the government, institution perspective oriented facilities make sure that the elder clients are well taken care of. While the second one which is bio-medical perspective has its attention directed with the physical anomalies that elderly clients have. The main objective is to treat the disease and prolong life, which sometimes may overlook the most important factor in caring for the seniors, the getting to know part and truly addressing the needs of the clients not just the phy sical or bio-medical needs but the one that matters the most for clients of the said age group, the social and psychological aspect. Techniques used to meet needs of individuals with dementia and common geriatric health conditions To address further the needs and concerns of the senior citizens, there are some techniques used in various healthcare fields and facilities. The first to be discussed is the reality-orientation approach. This is about informing the clients of the current happening or event in the environment. For example, reorienting elderly of the time, date and place where they are at. This technique is very helpful in eliminating confusion and promoting clients’ confidence in performing activities for the day. In addition to the said events to be reoriented, familiar people and family members would facilitate better memory for the elderly. By seeing their relatives or hearing their names and stories about them, clients’ memory will be stimulated hence, vastly promotes confidence and lessen confusion and disorientation. Furthermore, the simplest but most important way to reorient clients is sometimes forgotten, this is using clients’ names always when communicating with them a nd informing them of activities they need to participate with for the day. For example, when entering a client’s room for his or her breakfast, a carer should knock on the door and politely call the client’s name to wake him or her up and encourage him to eat breakfast and to do succeeding client activities for the day. This will then make the client aware of his or her own surroundings and activities to be done. Therefore giving them confidence and feeling of self-worth. The next technique which is gaining popularity is the validation approach, it is inclined with accepting the client, understanding and somehow putting one’s self into the shoes of the clients. By doing this, elderly clients will be more responsive to interventions, they will be more active in communication and therefore will be more happy and contented. By agreeing to them and not contradicting their understanding of things it will be easy for the carer to redirect and divert the attention of the elderly to the right path or correct thinking. Thus, frustrations that may lead to depression would be minimized or even eliminated. Third technique is called assistive technologies. This is all about innovation and creativity being applied for not only practical but most importantly, for humanitarian cause. In this technique, modern equipment that can be used in everyday life are designed to promote independence, reduce risks and improve the quality of life of not only elderly clients but younger people with disabilities as well. Good examples of these technologies applied for the benefit of the elderly are clocks and calendars that have particular properties to prevent disorientation to time and date. Another are locator devices, these can be in a form of key ring or Velcro belts and bracelets that clients can wear and can be activated in cases of wandering and being lost. There is another type of elderly friendly technology that is very useful in ensuring safety and security for clients who are living by their own. This is called â€Å"Telecare†. It utilizes sensors that are installed around the clientâ €™s home and connected to a telecommunication device. This amazing technology detects environmental changes inside the house, such as, extreme temperatures, floods and even gas leaks. It also senses the client’s movements. For example, if the client is often getting up at night to go to the toilet or if there are risk of falls, this are detected by the sensors and appropriate communication will be submitted to the nominated person. These various forms of technologies prove to be very helpful in keeping the seniors safe and secure while maintaining their need to be independent and fully functional on their own (Alzheimers Society, 2015). Forth to be examined is the reminiscence techniques. The premise of having psychotherapeutic measures that pertains to the life story of the elderly and how they lived their lives, focusing on the good and minimizing the regrets and resentments from previous events in the old persons’ lives. This approach is proven to improve clients’ mood. Cognitive ability and over-all well-being for clients with mild to moderate dementia. In some way it is inclined and similar to reality orientation approach in aspects of involving relatives and family members who are very close to the client and even those who played enormous roles in the life of the elderly in the past. This will lighten their days knowing that they still know and remember such important events and people. This in turn, will give empowerment, independence and autonomy in accomplishing everyday tasks, as aimed by other techniques of meeting senior client’s needs especially ones with dementia and similar cogni tive difficulties (The Institute of Research and Innovation in Social Services, 2015). Lastly among the techniques utilized for elderly clients, there is the holistic approach. This is mainly involved in simple things that comprises the totality of a client’s life. Included in this approach is the environment of the client. Basic things such as how furniture are arranged, proper lighting at home, reduction of clutters and other potential hazards to the elderly would vastly improve the way they live and can minimize or even eliminate accidents that most of the senior people dreaded. Sometimes this fear of mishaps may cause lack of confidence in doing activities on their own, hence, leading to sedentary life style. This then would have a negative impact on clients’ over-all health and may contribute in further deterioration of physical and psychosocial well-being. To alleviate this and supplement the environmental modification, it is invaluable for the carers to have effective communication with the elderly so that techniques of care will yield favourable o utcomes. Communication can be in a verbal or non-verbal form. It should be assured that both modes of communication are comforting and not threatening to the elderly. The clients will be more compliant and will be more participative in care and activities if carers use proper, polite and effective communication. In addition to environment and communication, there is the aspect of nutrition and engagement to physical activities for the elderly clients. With older clients, nutrition and hydration is very important to maintain good health and avoid discomforts. For example, discomforts caused by difficulty in elimination or constipation. By providing clients with high fibre diet and encouraging them to increase fluid intake, the said discomfort can be significantly reduced. Finally, it is also a must to engage elderly clients in regular physical activities. Every morning exercises, brisk walking around the facility and simple games with balls and hoops can be of great help for the seni ors in stretching their muscles and moving their joints. This will give clients time to spend to socialize with other clients, carers and their family, avoid boredom and minimise development of challenging behaviours. Impacts of equality, culture and diversity on provision of person-centred approach The most observable impact of culture, diversity and equality on person-centred approach of care seems to be positive in nature. Mostly positive in the sense that person-centred approach is all about caring for an individual. Having specific plan of treatment and care for a certain client. Applying individualize measures that would meet the specific needs of a certain individual based on culture is a very good example. While doing this, diversity and equality is being respected and recognized. Impacts of health sector standards and code of practice and other published standards on person-centred practice approach The health sector has established standards, policies and procedures that have made a huge impact on approaches and measures in managing health concerns of the elderly. The main code that affects person-centred approach is the well-known and widely accepted, Code of Health and Disability Services Consumers’ Rights. This is very good in promoting person-centred care because it emphasises on rights of clients not just the elderly but persons with disabilities and those who are vulnerable in the society. The code implies the respect in clients’ privacy, autonomy, dignity, right to fair treatment and appropriate standards of care, right to complete and accurate information and communication, right to support, rights during teaching and research and the right to complain. All of the said rights pertain to the individual and emphasises on respecting the individual as anyone would like to be respected. It is believed that this is the same premise of person-centred approach in one way or another (Health and Disability Commissioner, 2009). Conclusion After analysing various approaches and techniques in managing older people with dementia and other geriatric-related health conditions, such as, person-centred and non-person-centred approach, reality orientation, validation approach, assistive technologies, reminiscence techniques, holistic approach and impacts of equality, culture, diversity and effects of standards and codes of practice in the health sector, it is therefore concluded that people with advance age and are living with symptoms of dementia or age related health concerns benefit the most in care that is inclined in a person-centred type of health management. It is proven that elderly clients live better, maintain or even boost their confidence, retain autonomy or independence, preserve their dignity and have vast improvements in their over-all quality of life with the help of the said techniques and approaches to care which is centred to the seniors themselves. References Alzheimers Society. (2015). Assistive technology devices to help with everyday living Alzheimers Society. Retrieved from http://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=109 Health and Disability Commissioner. (2009). Health and Disability Commissioner Code of Rights. Retrieved from http://www.hdc.org.nz The Institute of Research and Innovation in Social Services. (2015). Supporting those with dementia: Reminiscence therapy and life story work IRISS Insights, no.4 | IRISS The Institute for Research and Innovation in Social Services. Retrieved from http://www.iriss.org.uk/resources/supporting-those-dementia-reminiscence-therapy-and-life-story-work

Napoleon :: European Europe History

Napoleon Nationalism is the devotion of people to the interests of its nation or the love of one's country to stay independent. Nationalism played a major role in the downfall of Napoleon in that he wanted an empire and his opponent's wanted independence. As Napoleon was conquering lands and creating a vast empire his troops stressed in the far lands that they conquered life, liberty and equality. Although Napoleon did not realize, it triggered nationalistic feelings among the conquered nations. Spain, who was an ally of France, disobeyed Napoleon's decree. Then in 1808 Napoleon overthrew the Spanish royal family and made his brother Joseph king of Spain. However, everything that Napoleon did such as put in a foreign ruler, take away noble privileges offended Spanish pride and created nationalistic feelings. The people of Spain revolted in 1808. The French troops stopped the riots, but the nationalistic spirit was not lost. For the next five years, there was warfare in Spain. British troops came to aid Spain. This led to the defeat of Joseph, death of thousands of French troops and it inspired patriots and nationalists of other lands to resist Napoleon. This war between 1808 and 1813 is called The Peninsular War. In Germany, anti-French feelings broke out. However, the French invasions carried German nationalism beyond the small ranks of writers. In 1807, writers attacked French occupation of Germany. This nationalistic feeling spread to the Prussians. In 1806, the Prussians were defeated by the French troops. To drive the French out of Prussia there would have to be a spirit of cooperation and loyalty. To accomplish this there would have to be social and political reforms. A reformer said that if social abuses were eliminated the Prussians could fight with national honor. Military reforms improved the Prussian army. In the War of Liberation (1813), the soldiers showed great feelings of patriotism and nationalism. Afterwards, the French were driven out of Prussia. Russia, who was an ally of France, went against the word of Napoleon, So Napoleon decided to invade Russia. Napoleon's Grand Army had 700,000 people in it. Most of soldiers were not French and did not care for the war. In 1812 when Napoleon began the invasion, Russia retreated. As they were retreating, they burned all crops, which were valuable. When Napoleon reached Moscow, the Russians burned the city. Even worse, the winter was in a few months. The Russians also destroyed the food supply of Napoleon.

Adjustment Essay -- essays research papers

My cousin Kara just got married recently. She is about six years older than I am and has graduated from college and is ready to settle down. She has been planning her wedding for almost a year. It took a lot of time and effort to make her wedding day perfect. Just finding the dress took six months. On the day of the wedding tons of things went wrong but in the end it all worked out and it was beautiful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I got a chance to talk to her and ask her some questions about how she felt about everything. She told me that the biggest adjustment she had to make was knowing that she was all grown up. She felt like the real world had finally come along and she was no longer dependent on her parents. That scared her to death. She said that she loved David her fiancà © more than anything and she knew she was making the right decision, but the fact that she was going to be with him forever took some time to get used to also. Not only did she have to worry about the planning and spending, she was also becoming very emotional about everything as the day drew closer. Her parents are divorced so that made her planning process even more difficult. Each parent gave her a certain amount of money but neither would really get involved in helping her get everything together. She lives in St. Louis and both of her parents live more than a eight hundred miles away from her. So she felt bas ically on her own from her family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another major adjust...

Symbolism of the Forest in the Scarlet Letter

Symbolism of the Forest in The Scarlet Letter In The House of Seven Gables, Nathaniel Hawthorne once wrote, â€Å"For what other dungeon is so dark as one’s own heart! What jailer so inexorable as one’s self! † Hawthorne asserts that every individual becomes a hostage of his or her own heart. This idea is displayed throughout The Scarlet Letter to portray how Puritans lived under the constant repression of the Puritan society. Puritan society lived by laws that allowed no means of freedom or happiness and kept their citizens under a strict moral law code.The Puritan civilization imprisons members of society to the point where they are crying out for freedom. Therefore, hostages of his or her own heart embark on a journey to free themselves. This is displayed continuously in The Scarlet Letter through its use of the forest. In the novel the forest consists of multiple meanings. It serves as another world apart from the Puritan society, and it provides a haven in w hich people break free from the social order.Throughout The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne presents the forest as a symbolic figure to exemplify free will, bring forth the natural personalities of the characters, and to represent a dark civilization within the Puritan society. First, the forest is a symbol to epitomize free will in The Scarlet Letter by presenting the forest as a safe haven with no rules or individuals who scrutinize every action being made. Thus, the townspeople approach the forest to reign free with their desires and longings.For example, Hester longs to meet Dimmesdale and determines that the forest is the safest place as she is allowed to meet with him without the town knowing. As Hester and Dimmesdale greet each other, â€Å"†¦it was like the first encounter, in the world beyond the grave, of two spirits who had been intimately connected in their former life, but now stood coldly†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hawthorne 198). For the first time in seven years they a re able to meet with each other in private without needing to worry about being caught. Surrounded by the twilight in the forest, Hester and Dimmesdale slowly start to open up to each other.They freely begin to talk about starting a new life with each other as a family, and Hester slowly starts to become blissful. Hawthorne’s purpose here is to display how the forest functions as a world of happiness and love, and so the forest’s role is to create a free world without any fear. The forest allows these two young lovers to freely reunite and be happy together. Where else, the rest of the novel surrounds itself in an aura of gloominess, this one scene in the novel permits Hester and Dimmesdale to be filled with love and joy.Also, during her conversation with Dimmesdale, Hester impulsively takes off the â€Å"A† upon her chest. It is the first and only time in the novel where Hester allows herself the freedom to remove the badge of shame. She â€Å"†¦heaved a long, deep sigh, in which the burden of shame and anguish departed from her spirit, oh exquisite relief! She had not known the weight, until she felt freedom! † (Hawthorne 211). The forest lets Hester choose whether she agrees with the Puritan society or if she is against it.Her action of taking the â€Å"A† off represents her choice in breaking apart from the Puritan civilization. The Puritans view the â€Å"A† as a symbol that represents what they deem to be right, and when Hester takes it off her chest she is breaking free from what society thinks about her. Hester’s courage to meet with Dimmesdale and the removal of the â€Å"A† represents how the forest exemplifies free will. Secondly, the forest also manages to bring out the natural personalities of the characters.One of the characters Hawthorne uses to demonstrate this is Pearl. To Pearl, the forest is her best friend, a place where she is truly accepted. Hawthorne states, â€Å"The truth se ems to be, however, that the mother-forest, and these wild things which it nourished, all recognized a kindred wildness in the human child† (Hawthorne 213). In the forest, Pearl can be as bright and joyful as she wishes because the forest acknowledges her for who she is- a moody, curious, care-free, innocent, and intuitive child who also happens to be a social outcast.The forest also brings out her personality because of her connection with nature. Pearl is the romantic character in the novel due to her personality traits. She enjoys life and is constantly curious about the unexplainable, such as the identity of her father and the â€Å"A† on her mother’s chest. In the forest, she is accepted as a friend by all the animals, and the light constantly chases her wherever she goes. The light represents truth and purity. It constantly surrounds Pearl because she is an innocent and also a child who had no doing in the in her parents committed. A second character who br ings forth their inner traits in the forest is Hester. Hawthorne uses the forest to give life to Hester and permits Hester to be herself again. She is first introduced as a beautiful, compassionate, and honest woman, but as the situation with the â€Å"A† becomes more grave Hester slowly starts to lose the characteristics she once possessed. After seven years of suffering humiliation and punishment, Hester covers her hair under a cap and her beauty and warmth are now hidden beneath the â€Å"A† on her chest.However upon her secret rendezvous with the reverend, Hester takes off the cap on her head and all at once the air about her gradually starts to change. She becomes the person she once was, and her â€Å"†¦ sex, her youth, her whole richness of her beauty, came back from what men call the irrevocable past, and clustered themselves, with her maiden hope, and a happiness before unknown, within the magic circle of this hour† (Hawthorne 212). She regains her sexuality, and not only does she become the person she was seven years ago, but symbolically, she removes the strict moral code of the Puritan society.Even though it is for a short period of time, the forest gives her the audacity to be herself again. The last character who brings forth their natural personality in the novel is Dimmesdale. He starts to regain himself in the forest upon his meeting with Hester, and for the first time in the novel, Dimmesdale is happy and optimistic. Just as Hester and Dimmesdale are conversing about their escape to restart their lives with Pearl, Dimmesdale begins to believe in happy endings and his concern for what society desires dissolves for a moment in the woods.The forest, in the end, brings out the natural individuality of the characters of Pearl, Hester, and Dimmesdale. Finally, the forest serves as a symbol to represent a dark civilization on the outskirts of the Puritan society. Hawthorne does this by presenting the readers with the story of the Black Man in the forest. All throughout the novel, the Black Man of the forest is mentioned at various points. The story of the Black Man represents a sense of superstition and true temptation in the novel.Pearl states that the Black Man is an interesting figure who â€Å"†¦haunts this forest, and carries a book with him- a big, heavy book, with iron claps; and how the ugly Black Man offers his book and an iron pen to everybody that meets him here among the trees†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hawthorne 193). Symbolically, the Black Man represents the devil and writing one’s name in his book indicates submission to the devil and succumbing to sin. Hawthorne uses this story to display a darker world in the Puritan society and how certain characters are playing the devil’s advocate.It presents how another world filled with evil spirits and sin lies inside the Puritan society. Another example to signify the symbolism of the forest as a dark world inside the Puritan society i s with the character of Mistress Hibbins. She is known as the sister of Governor Bellingham and as the town witch. After Hester’s meeting with the Governor, Mistress Hibbins approaches Hester and inquires if she would like to join her in the forest at night. She asks, â€Å"Wilt thou go with us tonight?There will be a merry company in the forest; and I wellnigh promised the Black man that comely Hester Prynne should make come† (Hawthorne 12). This question illustrates the wickedness and secrecy of the forest. Mistress Hibbins clearly indicates the forest as the meeting place because there are no ears to listen to them chant their magic spells and nor are there eyes in the forest to scrutinize their actions. Hawthorne uses this scene to hint that there are supernatural qualities among individuals and the town.The forest demonstrates how it symbolizes the darkness within the Puritan society by using the Black Man of the forest and Mistress Hibbins. In the end, the signif icance of the forest in The Scarlet Letter is immense. The forest represents freedom and darkness hidden inside the Puritan society. It also allows the characters to become themselves again. As Hawthorne said in The House of Seven Gables, humans are the prisoners of his or her own heart and they seek escape from it. In The Scarlet Letter, the forest was the one place where any individual was allowed the opportunity to escape.

The Nature of Viruses

Vir engages be sub-cellular agents of infection that moldiness put on the cellular machinery of bacteria, plants or animals in ordinate to re bugger off. Composed of a private beach of inherited tangible ( deoxyribonucleic acid or ribonucleic acid) incased in a protein capsid, a computer virus is as well sm every to be seen by standard light microscopy indeed, closely be less(prenominal) than one ordinal the size of a bacterium. Specific proteins on the viral capsid attach to receptors on the phalanx cell this attachment carry out is inhering to viral infectivity and informs why viruses whitethorn scarce infect the cells of veritable species or whitethorn only infect certain cells or tissues at bottom a abandoned swarm species. speckle the infecting virus triggers an insubordinate solvent in the soldiery, more or less atomic number 18 competent-bodied of suppressing that response by infecting and cleanup position cells that halt immunity (e. g. HIV attacks lymphocytes). In addition, magic spell most infected cells atomic number 18 done for(p) by viral replication, any(prenominal) viruses go into a latent chassis within cells, reactivating in the future to produce degenerative or relapsing infections.M whatever viruses use particular proposition carriers (known as vectors) such as mosquitoes, ticks, bats and rodents that transmit the virus to a susceptible multitude term another(prenominal)s ar spread between individuals via decline wholesaler or through and through respiratory, enteric or sexual secretions. Of special match is the concomitant that alterations within the viral genome whitethorn resign viruses to skip from one legion (e. g. birds, swine, monkeys) to almost other (e. g. homos), unleashing pandemics.Mevery familiar human infections atomic number 18 produced by viruses these include the harsh cold, flu, mononucleosis, herpes virus virus infections (including shingles), viral hepatitis (A, B, C and others), HIV, viral gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, viral pneumonia, encephalitis, viral meningitis and viral infections of the heart, including pericarditis and myocarditis. While viruses do non respond to antibiotics, specific antiviral agent agent agents whitethorn sustain (though non cure) chronic disease (such as HIV, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) or may modify the severeness of ague infection (as in influenza and herpes infections).However, in most viral infections, sermon is, for now, purely symptomatic and supportive. On the other hand, vaccines be capable of pr tear downting slightly viral infections (e. g. herpes simplex, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, Hepatitis B) or reducing the sourness of an intense infection (e. g. influenza). Beyond the slap-up or chronic illness that they produce, round viral infections (such and Hepatitis C and certain strains of herpes simplex) atomic number 18 known to be precursors of malignancy. Finally, um teen researchers suspect that viruses play a intention in the pathogenesis of chronic illnesses such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune disorders. ttp//naturesblog. blogspot. com/2013/01/the-nature-of-viruses. hypertext mark-up language The Nature of Viruses Viruses exist in deuce different states, the extracellular infectious molecule or virion and the intracellular state consisting of viral nucleic back breaker. The capsid may be a polyhedron or a helix, or a combination of some(prenominal) (in some phages). Viruses atomic number 18 infective micro beings that show some(prenominal) differences from car park microbial cells. 1. Size. The size throw away of viruses is from about 20 to 300 nm. On the whole, viruses atomic number 18 much smaller than bacteria. close to animal viruses and all plant viruses and phages argon invisible under the light microscope. 2. ingenuous construction. Viruses cook very simple structures. The simplest viruses are nucleoprotein ingredi ents consisting of genetic material ( deoxyribonucleic acid or ribonucleic acid) border by a protein capsid. In this observe they differ from typical cells which arc do up) of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nuc1eicacids. The more complex viruses contain lipids and carbohydrates in addition to proteins and nucleic acids, e. g. the enveloped viruses 3. Absence of cellular structure.Viruses do not book any cytoplasm, and thitherfrom cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria, Golgi complexes, lysosomes, ribosomes, etc. , are absent. They do not allow any limiting cell membrane. They utilize the ribosomes of the legion cell for protein synthesis during reproduction. 4. No self-sufficient metabolism. Viruses cannot multiply outside a nutrition cell. No virus has been cultivated in a cell-free medium. Viruses do not micturate an independent metabolism. They are metabolically soundless outside the boniface cell because they do not posses enzyme systems and protein synthesis m achinery.viral nucleic acid replicates by utilizing the protein synthesis machinery of the military. It codes for the synthesis of a limited number of viral proteins, including the subunits or capsomeres of the capsid, the tail protein and some enzymes relate Viruses receive only one nucleic acid, either desoxyribonucleic acid or RNA. Typical cells bear both DNA and RNA. Genomes of certain with the synthesis or the release of virions. 5. Nucleic acids. RNA viruses can be transcribed into complementary DNA strands in the infected waiter cells, e. g. Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV). such RNA viruses are and so alike called RNA-DNA viruses. 6. Crystallization. some(prenominal) of the smaller viruses can be crystallized, and therefrom behave like chemicals. 7. No growth and division. Viruses do not have the power of growth and division. A in full material bodyed virus does not cast up in, size by addition of overbold molecules. The virus itself cannot divide. Only its genetic mate rial (RNA or DNA) is capable of reproduction and that too only in a host cell. It will thus be seen that viruses do not show all the characteristics of typical living organisms.They, however, possess two funda moral characteristics of living systems. Firstly, they contain nucleic acid as their genetic material. The nucleic acid contains instructions for the structure and function of the virus. Secondly, they can reproduce themselves, even if only by using the host cells synthesis machinery. Viral genomes The nucleic acid comprising the genome may be single-stranded or double-stranded, & in a linear, circular or segmental configuration. Single-stranded virus genomes may be positive (+) brain, i. e. of the equivalent polarity (nucleotide sequence) as mRNA negative (-)sense Ambisense a garland of the two. N/B. Virus genomes string in size from approximately 3,200 nucleotides (nt) to approximately 1. 2 million base pairs Unlike the genomes of all cells, which are composed of DNA, virus genomes may contain their genetic information encoded in either DNA or RNA. Since viruses are obligate intracellular parasites only able to replicate inside the appropriate host cells, the genome mustiness contain information encoded in a form which can be recognized & decoded by the accompaniment grammatical case of cell parasitized.Thus, the genetic code assiduous by the virus must play off or at least be recognized by the host organism. Similarly, the control signals which direct the expression of virus genes must be appropriate to the host. Many of the DNA viruses of eukaryotes closely resemble their host cells in terms of the biology of their genomes Some DNA virus genomes are complexed with cellular histones to form a chromatin-like structure inside the virus particle. http//expertscolumn. com/content/nature-viruses http//www. mcb. uct. ac. za/tutorial/virorig. html Viral phylogenyViral evolution is a subfield of evolutionary biology and virology that is specifica lly concerned with the evolution of viruses. Many viruses, in particular RNA viruses, have short genesis times and relatively high variant rates (on the order of one tear mutation or more per genome per roofy of replication for RNA viruses). This elevated mutation rate, when combined with natural selection, allows viruses to quickly correct to intensifys in their host environment. Viral evolution is an important aspect of the epidemiology of viral diseases such as influenza (influenza virus), AIDS (HIV), and hepatitis (e. . HCV). It also causes problems in the training of successful vaccines and antiviral drugs, as resistant mutations often bug out within weeks or months after the fount of the treatment.One of the main theoretical models to look at viral evolution is the quasispecies model, as the viral quasispecies. Origins Viruses are old-fashioned. Studies at the molecular aim have revealed relationships between viruses infecting organisms from each of the iii domai ns of life, and viral proteins that pre-date the divergence of life and thus the last universal common ancestor. 1 This indicates that viruses emerged early in the evolution of life and existed forwards modern cells. 2 There are third classical hypotheses on the origins of viruses Viruses may have once been small cells that parasitised larger cells (the rottenness hypothesis34 or reduction hypothesis5) some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that escaped from the genes of a larger organism (the vagrancy hypothesis6 or escape hypothesis) or viruses could have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the equal time as cells first appeared on earth (the virus-first hypothesis). 5None of these hypotheses was fully veritable the regressive hypothesis did not relieve why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles. The virus-first hypothesis was quickly dismissed because it contravened the comment of viruses, in that they require host cells. 5 Virologists are, however, number 1 to reconsider and re-evaluate all three hypotheses. 78 http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Viral_evolution developing Time-line of paleoviruses in the human lineage9Viruses do not form fossils in the traditional sense, because they are much smaller than the grains of sedimentary rocks that fossilise plants and animals. However, the genomes of some(prenominal) organism contain endogenic viral elements (EVEs). These DNA sequences are the remnants of ancient virus genes and genomes that ancestrally invaded the host germline. For example, the genomes of most craniate species contain hundreds to thousands of sequences derived from ancient retroviruses. These sequences are a valuable source of retrospective deduction about the evolutionary history of viruses, and have given birth to the science of paleovirology. 9 The evolutionar y history of viruses can to some period be inferred from analysis of contemporary viral genomes.The mutation rates for many viruses have been measured, and application of a molecular quantify allows dates of divergence to be inferred. 10 Viruses evolve through changes in their DNA (or RNA), some quite rapidly, and the best adapted mutants quickly amount their less fit counterparts. In this sense their evolution is Darwinian, just like that of their host organisms. 11 The way viruses reproduce in their host cells makes them particularly susceptible to the genetic changes that attend to to drive their evolution. 12 The RNA viruses are in particular prone to mutations. 13 In host cells there are mechanisms for correcting mistakes when DNA replicates and these kick in whenever cells divide. 13 These important mechanisms prevent potentially lethal mutations from being passed on to offspring. But these mechanisms do not work for RNA and when an RNA virus replicates in its host cell , changes in their genes are occasionally introduced in error, some of which are lethal. One virus particle can produce millions of take viruses in just one cycle of replication, therefore the production of a few bomb viruses is not a problem.Most mutations are silent and do not matter in any obvious changes to the progeny viruses, but others confer advantages that increase the fittingness of the viruses in the environment. These could be changes to the virus particles that inter them so they are not set by the cells of the immune system or changes that make antiviral drugs less effective. both(prenominal) of these changes occur frequently with HIV. 14 Phylogenetic manoeuvre showing the relationships of morbilliviruses of different species15 Many viruses (for example, influenza A virus) can shuffle their genes with other viruses when two similar strains infect the same cell.This phenomenon is called genetic shift, and is often the cause of youthful and more virulent strains appearing. Other viruses change more slowly as mutations in their genes gradually accumulate over time, a process known as genetic drift. 16 Through these mechanisms new viruses are everlastingly emerging and present a go on challenge to attempts to control the diseases they cause. 1718 Most species of viruses are now known to have common ancestors, and although the virus first hypothesis has so far to gain full acceptance, there is undersize doubt that the thousands of species of modern viruses have evolved from less numerous ancient ones. 19 The morbilliviruses, for example, are a group of closely related, but transparent viruses that infect a broad range of animals.The group includes measles virus, which infects humans and order Primates canine distemper virus, which infects many animals including dogs, cats, bears, weasels and hyaenas rinderpest, which infects kine and buffalo and other viruses of seals, porpoises and dolphins. 20 Although it not doable to prove which of these rapidly evolving viruses is the earliest, for such a closely related group of viruses to be found in such versatile hosts suggests a possible ancient common ancestor. 21 The Nature of Viruses Viruses are sub-cellular agents of infection that must utilize the cellular machinery of bacteria, plants or animals in order to reproduce. Composed of a single strand of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein capsid, a virus is too small to be seen by standard light microscopy indeed, most are less than one hundredth the size of a bacterium.Specific proteins on the viral capsid attach to receptors on the host cell this attachment process is essential to viral infectivity and explains why viruses may only infect the cells of certain species or may only infect certain cells or tissues within a given host species. While the infecting virus triggers an immune response in the host, some are capable of suppressing that response by infecting and killing cells that control immunity (e. g. HIV attacks lymphocytes).In addition, while most infected cells are destroyed by viral replication, some viruses enter a latent phase within cells, reactivating in the future to produce chronic or relapsing infections. Many viruses use specific carriers (known as vectors) such as mosquitoes, ticks, bats and rodents that transmit the virus to a susceptible host while others are spread between individuals via blood contact or through respiratory, intestinal or sexual secretions.Of special concern is the fact that mutations within the viral genome may allow viruses to skip from one host (e. g. birds, swine, monkeys) to another (e. g. humans), unleashing pandemics. Many common human infections are produced by viruses these include the common cold, influenza, mononucleosis, herpes infections (including shingles), viral hepatitis (A, B, C and others), HIV, viral gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, viral pneumonia, encephalitis, viral meningitis and viral infections of the heart, incl uding pericarditis and myocarditis.While viruses do not respond to antibiotics, specific antiviral agents may control (though not cure) chronic disease (such as HIV, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) or may modify the hardness of acute infection (as in influenza and herpes infections). However, in most viral infections, treatment is, for now, purely symptomatic and supportive. On the other hand, vaccines are capable of preventing some viral infections (e. g. erpes simplex, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, Hepatitis B) or reducing the severity of an acute infection (e. g. influenza). Beyond the acute or chronic illness that they produce, some viral infections (such and Hepatitis C and certain strains of herpes simplex) are known to be precursors of malignancy. Finally, many researchers suspect that viruses play a determination in the pathogenesis of chronic illnesses such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune disorders. development of viruses (images)